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Mar. 7, 2013 ? Glial cells -- a family of cells found in the human central nervous system and, until recently, considered mere "housekeepers" -- now appear to be essential to the unique complexity of the human brain. Scientists reached this conclusion after demonstrating that when transplanted into mice, these human cells could influence communication within the brain, allowing the animals to learn more rapidly.
The study, out today in the journal Cell Stem Cell, suggests that the evolution of a subset of glia called astrocytes -- which are larger and more complex in humans than other species -- may have been one of the key events that led to the higher cognitive functions that distinguish us from other species.
"This study indicates that glia are not only essential to neural transmission, but also suggest that the development of human cognition may reflect the evolution of human-specific glial form and function," said University of Rochester Medical Center (URMC) neurologist Steven Goldman, M.D., Ph.D., co-senior author of the study. "We believe that this is the first demonstration that human glia have unique functional advantages. This finding also provides us with a fundamentally new model to investigate a range of diseases in which these cells may play a role."
In recent years scientists have begun to understand and appreciate the role that glia cells -- and more specifically astrocytes -- play in brain function. Researchers at URMC have been pioneers in unlocking the secrets of astrocytes and demonstrating that they not only serve to support the neurons in the brain, but also communicate with neurons and each other.
"The role of the astrocyte is to provide the perfect environment for neural transmission," said Maiken Nedergaard, M.D., D.M.Sc., co-senior author of the study and director, along with Goldman, of the URMC Center for Translational Neuromedicine. "As the same time, we've observed that as these cells have evolved in complexity, size, and diversity -- as they have in humans -- brain function becomes more and more complex."
Astrocytes are far more abundant, larger, and diverse in the human brain compared to other species. In humans, individual astrocytes project scores of fibers that can simultaneously connect with large numbers of neurons, and in particular their synapses, the points of communication where two adjoining neurons meet. As a result, individual human astrocytes can potentially coordinate the activity of thousands of synapses, far more than in mice.
It was this observation that suggested that human astrocytes might play a significant role in integrating and coordinating the more complex signaling activity found in human brains, and hence help regulate our higher cognitive functions. This in turn suggested that, when transplanted into mice, human glia may influence underlying patterns of neural activity.
"In a fundamental sense are we different from lower species," said Goldman. "Our advanced cognitive processing capabilities exist not only because of the size and complexity of our neural networks, but also because of the increase in functional capabilities and coordination afforded by human glia."
"I have always found the concept that the human brain is more capable because we have more complex neural networks to be a little too simple, because if you put the entire neural network and all of its activity together all you just end up with a super computer," said Nedergaard. "But human cognition is far more than just processing data, it is also [composed of] the coordination of emotion with memory that informs our higher abilities to abstract and learn."
The research team decided to determine if human glial cells might provide the human brain with unique capabilities by seeing what happened when these cells were allowed to co-exist with the normal nerve cells of mice. The scientists first isolated human glial progenitors -- the cells in the central nervous system that give rise to astrocytes -- from brain tissue. They then transplanted these cells into the brains of neonatal mice. As the mice matured, the human glial cells outcompeted the host's native glial cells, while at the same time leaving the existing neural network intact.
"The human glia cells essentially took over to the point where virtually all of the glial progenitor cells and a large proportion of the astrocytes in the mice were of human origin, and essentially developed and behaved as they would have in a person's brain," said Goldman.
The team then set out to examine the functional impact that these cells had on the animals' brains, specifically the speed and retention of signals between cells in the brain and its plasticity -- the ability of the brain to form new memories and learn new tasks.
They found that two important indicators of brain function drastically improved in the mice with human glia. First, when measuring a phenomenon called calcium wave -- the speed and distance at which a signal spreads within and among adjoining astrocytes in the brain -- the researchers noted that the speed of wave transmission in the transplanted mice was faster than normally observed in mice, and more similar to that of human brain tissue.
Second, the researchers also looked at long-term potentiation (LTP), a process that measures how long the neurons in the brain are affected by a brief electrical stimulation. LTP is considered one of the central molecular mechanism underlying learning and memory. In this test as well, the researchers found that the transplanted mice developed more rapid and sustained LTP, suggesting their improved learning capability.
On the basis of these findings, the team then evaluated the mice in a series of behavioral tasks designed to test memory and learning ability. They found that the transplanted mice were more rapid learners and both acquired new associations and performed a variety of tasks significantly faster than mice without the human glial cells.
"The bottom line is that these mice demonstrated an increase in plasticity and learning within their existing neural networks, essentially changing their functional capabilities," said Goldman. "This tells us that human glia have a species-specific role in intellectual capability and cognitive processing. While we've suspected for a while that this might be the case, this is really the first proof of this point."
The researchers believe that this animal model, which they call the human glial chimeric mouse, now provides the medical community with a new tool to understand and treat neurological disorders to which glial abnormalities contribute. This may be especially relevant for those neurological and neuropsychiatric diseases that appear more in humans than other species. In these disorders, the human-specific features of astrocytes may be of special importance to the disease process. Goldman, Nedergaard, and their colleagues are already using these mice to study a range of human neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders to which glial pathology may contribute.
Additional authors include Xiaoning Han, Michel Chen, Fushun Wang, Martha Windrem, Su Wang, Steven Shanz, Qiwu Xu, Nancy Ann Oberheim, Lane Bekar, Sarah Betstadt, and Takahiro Takano with URMC, and Alcino Silva with the University of California Los Angeles. The study was supported by the G. Harold and Leila Y. Mather Charitable Foundation, the Dr. Miriam and Sheldon G. Adelson Medical Research Foundation, the National Multiple Sclerosis Society, and the National Institutes of Health.
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Source: http://feeds.sciencedaily.com/~r/sciencedaily/~3/Fpk6N5gMpYs/130307145305.htm
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Source: http://moviesblog.mtv.com/2013/03/06/sam-mendes-bond-24/
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NEW YORK (AP) ? Thomas Mallon's novel about the scandal that brought down Richard Nixon is a finalist for the PEN/Faulkner award for fiction.
Published by Random House Inc., Mallon's "Watergate" was among five nominees for the $15,000 award. Three other books announced Wednesday were published by smaller presses, as judges bypassed such high-profile works of fiction as Louise Erdrich's "The Round House" and Junot Diaz's "This Is How You Lose Her."
Two finalists were released by Coffee House Press: Laird Hunt's "Kind One" and T. Geronimo's "Hold It 'Til It Hurts." The other nominees were Amelia Gray's "Threats," from Farrar, Straus & Giroux; and Benjamin Alire Saenz's story collection "Everything Begins & Ends," published by Cinco Puntos Press.
Previous winners of the PEN/Faulkner prize include Philip Roth and John Updike.
Source: http://news.yahoo.com/watergate-novel-nominated-fiction-prize-154038053.html
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NWCN.com
Posted on March 6, 2013 at 12:30 PM
RICHLAND, Wash.? -- Federal officials are looking to ship some 3 million gallons of radioactive waste from Washington state to New Mexico, giving the government more flexibility to deal with leaking tanks at Hanford Nuclear Reservation, officials said Wednesday.
The Department of Energy said its preferred plan would ultimately dispose of the waste in a massive repository -- called the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant -- near Carlsbad, N.M.
"This alternative, if selected for implementation in a record of decision, could enable the Department to reduce potential health and environmental risk in Washington State," said Dave Huizenga, head of the Energy Department's Environmental Management program. He said it would not impact the safe operations of the New Mexico facility.
The transfer would only account for a fraction of the roughly 50 million gallons of waste currently at Hanford, but it would potentially impact some 20 tanks. Federal officials have identified six leaking tanks.
Washington Gov. Jay Inslee says the proposal is a good start in the process of getting rid of Hanford's waste.
"I will be insistent that the full cycle of technical review and permitting is resolved so that any grouted material does not remain in the state of Washington," Inslee said.
Inslee was traveling Wednesday to Hanford -- the nation's most contaminated nuclear site -- to learn more about leaking radioactive waste tanks there. His trip came a day after federal officials acknowledged budget cuts may disrupt efforts to empty the aging vessels.
South-central Washington's Hanford Nuclear Reservation is home to 177 underground tanks, which hold toxic and radioactive waste left from decades of plutonium production for the country's nuclear weapons arsenal.
While state and federal officials have stressed that the leaks pose no immediate risk to public safety or the environment, Inslee says Washington state has a "zero tolerance" policy for leaks.
In a letter to Inslee, the Department of Energy estimated it will have to eliminate $92 million for its Office of River Protection, which oversees efforts to empty the tanks and build a plant to treat the waste. The cuts will result in furloughs or layoffs impacting about 2,800 contract workers, the agency said.
Inslee spokesman David Postman said the governor's initial concern is for the workers, but he emphasized budget constraints cannot be an excuse to delay response to the leaking tanks.
"The federal government has a commitment to the people of Washington state to clean up Hanford, and the governor will do everything possible to make that happen," Postman said.
The U.S. government spends some $2 billion each year on cleanup at Hanford -- one-third of its entire budget for nuclear cleanup nationally -- so the project is still in line to receive most of its usual federal funding.
The tanks hold millions of gallons of waste and have long surpassed their intended 20-year lifespan. The Energy Department has said the leaking tanks could be releasing as much as 1,000 gallons a year.
State and federal officials have said the leaking materials pose no immediate threat to public safety or the environment, but the leaks raise concerns about the potential for groundwater to be contaminated and, ultimately, reach the neighboring Columbia River about 5 miles away.
Deputy Secretary of Energy Daniel Poneman wrote in his letter that the layoffs and furloughs may curtail progress related to closing the tanks.
The cuts within the Energy Department's budget are the result of budget turmoil in Congress, where Republicans and President Barack Obama have been fighting over how to curtail the nation's debt. The budget cuts were designed in 2011 to be so draconian that both sides would have to come together to find a better solution, but they failed to find a compromise.
The $85 billion in cuts apply to the remainder of the 2013 fiscal year.
Energy Department officials said their budget was being reduced by some $1.9 billion.
Source: http://www.nwcn.com/news/washington/Hanford-waste-shipped-New-Mexico-195667701.html
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CARACAS, Venezuela (AP) ? Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez has undergone surgeries, chemotherapy and radiation treatment since June 2011 for an undisclosed type of pelvic cancer. Key moments in his medical treatment have included:
? June 30, 2011: Chavez says on television from Cuba that he had a cancerous tumor removed from his pelvic region. He later says the tumor extracted was the size of a baseball.
? July 4, 2011: Chavez returns to Venezuela, but later travels to Cuba periodically for chemotherapy and medical tests.
? Sept. 23, 2011: Chavez says he completed chemotherapy and calls the treatment successful. Says later that tests show no reappearance of cancer cells.
? Feb. 21, 2012: Chavez says his doctors found a new lesion in the same place where the tumor was previously removed, and announces plans to return to Cuba for surgery.
? Feb. 26, 2012: Chavez undergoes operation that removes the tumor from the same location in his pelvic region. Says later that follow-up tests showed the tumor was "recurrence of the initially diagnosed cancer."
? March 24, 2012: Chavez travels to Cuba to begin radiation therapy.
? April 14, 2012: Chavez travels to Cuba for second round of radiation treatment.
? April 26, 2012: Chavez returns to Venezuela following cancer treatment in Cuba, saying his latest round of therapy was successful.
? July 9, 2012: Chavez says at a news conference that tests show he is "totally free" of cancer.
? Oct. 7, 2012: Chavez wins re-election to another six-year term, beating challenger Henrique Capriles.
? Nov. 27, 2012: Chavez says he will travel to Cuba for more medical treatment. He says doctors have recommended he "begin special treatment consisting of various sessions of hyperbaric oxygenation."
? Dec. 9, 2012: Chavez announces that a cancerous tumor reappeared and that he must travel to Cuba for another operation. He says the surgery could be complicated and that if he is unable to stay on as president, Vice President Nicolas Maduro should run in an election to take his place.
? Dec. 10, 2012: Chavez travels to Cuba and undergoes surgery the next day.
? Jan. 10, 1013: Chavez misses his scheduled swearing-in ceremony, which was indefinitely postponed by lawmakers. Supporters stage symbolic inauguration in the streets of Caracas, swearing themselves in in their leader's place.
? Feb. 13, 2013: Maduro says Chavez is undergoing "extremely complex and tough" treatments.
? Feb. 15, 2013: Government shows first photos of Chavez in more than two months, says he is breathing through a tracheal tube.
? Feb. 18, 2013: Chavez returns from Cuba, tweets, "We will live and we will triumph!!" Supporters celebrate in streets. But Chavez heads immediately to a military hospital, making no public personal appearance.
? Feb. 22, 2013: Foreign Minister Elias Jaua reads long letter from Chavez to summit of African and South American leaders.
? March 1, 2013: Maduro says Chavez is receiving chemotherapy and "continues his battle for life." He describes the treatments as "intense and tough."
? March 4, 2013: Communications Minister Ernesto Villegas says Chavez has "a new and severe infection" and is in a "very delicate" condition.
? March 5, 2013: The government announces that Chavez has died.
Source: http://news.yahoo.com/chavezs-cancer-fight-glance-cancer-struggle-181359421.html
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